Investigating the relations between motivation, tool use, participation, and performance in an e-learning course using web-videoconferencing

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Abstract

Web-videoconference systems offer several tools (like chat, audio, and webcam) that vary in the amount and type of information learners can share with each other and the teacher. It has been proposed that tools fostering more direct social interaction and feedback amongst learners and teachers would foster higher levels of engagement. If so, one would expect that the richer the tools used, the higher the levels of learner engagement. However, the actual use of tools and contributions to interactions in the learning situation may relate to students’ motivation. Therefore, we investigated the relationship between available tools used, student motivation, participation, and performance on a final exam in an online course in economics (N = 110). In line with our assumptions, we found some support for the expected association between autonomous motivation and participation in web-videoconferences as well as between autonomous motivation and the grade on the final exam. Students’ tool use and participation were significantly correlated with each other and with exam scores, but participation appeared to be a stronger predictor of the final exam score than tool use. This study adds to the knowledge base needed to develop guidelines on how synchronous communication in e-learning can be used.

Highlights

► We investigated the use of web-videoconferencing in an e-learning course. ► Relations between motivation, tool use, participation, and performance were analyzed. ► Autonomous motivation had a positive correlation with participation and performance. ► Tool use and participation correlated with each other and with exam performance. ► But participation was a stronger predictor of exam performance than tool use.

Introduction

E-learning tools become increasingly rich, and offer more opportunities for synchronous communication resembling face-to-face situations. For instance, web-videoconference tools like Skype or Adobe Connect facilitate real-time communication through audio, video, chat. A particular feature of web-videoconferencing is that users can actively determine and decide whether to use audio, voice, chat, and video tools (Garcia, Uria, Granda, & Suarez, 2007), which is substantially different from earlier tools like discussion forums, where users were restricted to a single (text-based) functionality. It has further been proposed that tools that foster more direct social interaction and feedback amongst learners and teachers would foster higher levels of learner engagement (Carr et al., 2004, Hrastinski et al., 2010, Strømsø et al., 2007). An elaborate meta-analysis of interaction types in distance education (Bernard et al., 2009) showed that increasing either one of three interaction types (i.e. student–student, student–content, or student–teacher) increases learner engagement (see also Anderson, 2003). So, if tools foster interaction and interaction fosters engagement, one would expect that the richer the available tools are, the higher the levels of learner engagement. However, research has also suggested that it is the actual use of tools and the resulting interactions in the learning situation which are related to students’ motivation (Roca and Gagné, 2008, Sørebø et al., 2009). Therefore, we investigated the relationship between available tools used, student motivation, participation, and performance on a final exam, in the context of a distance education program in economics for prospective university students. Because participation was voluntary, this context offers a unique possibility for studying the role of student motivation and student engagement (defined here as the extent of tool use and participation). This may foster our understanding of how different types of learners engage and interact with available tools, and may ultimately contribute to guidelines for optimizing synchronous e-learning.

One factor that is considered pivotal in the degree to which students will use ICT tools is their acceptance of technology. The Technology Acceptance Model (Davis, 1989) is a commonly used model, and aims to predict the intention to use ICT. TAM is founded on the well-established Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991), which explains human behaviour by stating that it is directly preceded by the intention to perform this behaviour. Intention, in turn, is influenced by three factors: personal beliefs about one’s own behaviour, ones norms, and the amount of behavioural control one has. Building on this theory, TAM states that the intention to use ICT is influenced by two main factors: the perceived usefulness (the extent to which a person believes the use of ICT will, for example, enhance his or her performance on a course) and the perceived ease of use (the perceived effort it would take to use a particular communication tool like a webcam). Furthermore, research has shown motivation to be a key mediator for behavioural intention to use ICT (Davis et al., 1992, Venkatesh et al., 2003).

Only recently has the link between technology acceptance and motivation been made in the domain of e-learning, more specifically in computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL; Roca and Gagné, 2008, Sørebø et al., 2009), by linking TAM with self-determination theory (SDT; Deci and Ryan, 1985, Deci and Ryan, 2002). Self-determination, which is understood as the extent to which learning is perceived to be self-steered and autonomous, has been found to be a dominant factor that influences learning behaviour in various settings, including in e-learning settings (Chen and Jang, 2010, Rienties et al., 2009). Self-determination is strongly related to motivation (Vallerand, 1997), or in terms of SDT “is specifically framed in terms of social and environmental factors that facilitate versus undermine intrinsic motivation” (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 58). Intrinsically motivated learners are also referred to as ‘autonomous’, as they typically engage in learning because they find it enjoyable or challenging and they have an internally focused locus of causality (Black & Deci, 2000). Extrinsically motivated learners are referred to as ‘control oriented’, as they feel they have limited control over their learning process.

According to SDT, motivation is not a dichotomous construct where students either have an intrinsically or extrinsically directed drive (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Instead, extrinsic motivation is perceived as a continuum of types differing in how close they are to intrinsic motivation and vice versa. Self- determination has been shown to explain differences in amount and quality of students’ e-learning activities (Chen, 2010, Martens et al., 2004, Rienties et al., 2009). For example, Martens et al. (2004) showed higher activity levels in online tasks when students were more intrinsically motivated. In addition, the quality of contributions to discussion forums in online courses have been found to be higher for more intrinsically motivated students (e.g. Rienties et al., 2009).

SDT states that motivation and well-being are determined by the extent to which three basic needs are satisfied: the need for autonomy (i.e. the extent to which a learner feels in control), the need for relatedness (i.e. the extent to which a learner feels included), and the need for competency (i.e. the extent to which a learner feels competent with respect to tasks and learning activities). All three needs are affected by contextual factors, like the interaction between learners, teachers, and the learning material (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Because of the nature of e-learning, processes such as monitoring classroom activity, providing timely feedback, and fostering students’ sense of competence, autonomy, and relatedness are different from face-to-face education (Chen & Jang, 2010). However, research in face-to-face education showed that offering autonomy support and structure profoundly influence student engagement (Guay et al., 2008, Jang and Deci, 2010), and similar results have been found in e-learning (Chen and Jang, 2010, Rienties et al., 2012).

Using synchronous communication in e-learning, especially with more advanced tools such as videoconferencing, may help to limit delays in monitoring activity and may positively affect the sense of competency (e.g. by providing timely content related feedback by both students and tutors), the sense of relatedness (e.g. by making contact moments and feedback more direct and personal), and the sense of autonomy (i.e. by providing timely process related feedback). Indeed, combining SDT and TAM in research on e-learning, Roca and Gagné (2008) found that an increase in perceived autonomy support, perceived competence, and relatedness positively influenced users’ motivation to use ICT. Furthermore, findings by Sørebø et al. (2009) suggest that the use of e-learning tools is a reciprocal process between learner and technology, which can fortify both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, leading to a repeated refinement of learners’ motivation to continue their engagement. In sum, combining SDT and TAM in CSCL research has been shown to offer a better framework for understanding the use of technology in e-learning compared to each of the theories separately.

A(nother) critical gap that has been identified in research on technology acceptance is that most studies are based on the assumption that intention to use ICT tools is directly linked to actual usage behaviour (Bagozzi, 2007). For example, according to TAM, if students in an e-learning course that incorporates a combination of discussion forums and web-videoconferences would find the web-videoconference system easy to use and the web-videoconferences useful, they will be more inclined to participate in the web-videoconference meetings. Bagozzi (2007) stated, however, that there is not necessarily a one-to-one relationship between intention and actual use, and therefore more research is desired on actual usage behaviour and how that is related to motivation. Especially in facultative settings, students may find a web-videoconference useful, but they may still choose against participating due to competing activities, such as work, family or leisure (see Bernard et al., 2004, Marks et al., 2005). So the question is what role motivation plays in actual participation and actual tool use during participation. Therefore, the present study investigated the link between observed student behaviour (i.e. how often students participate and what tools they use), motivation, and performance on a final exam in the context of a facultative course.

Previous research has already shown that the combination of the theoretical frameworks of SDT and TAM was useful for explaining the relation between motivation and the intention to continue e-learning usage, but without specifying if the e-learning context used synchronous or asynchronous communication (e.g. Roca and Gagné, 2008, Sørebø et al., 2009). The present study uses the combination of those theories as a starting point to address the actual usage of synchronous tools. The model depicted in Fig. 1 shows the variables in this study and their assumed relations.

Regarding the relation between the level of motivation and the actual use of web-videoconference, two hypotheses can be stated building on the findings by Davis et al. (1992), and Roca and Gagné (2008) about the relationship between motivation (SDT) and the intention to use ICT (TAM): first, it can be hypothesized that higher levels of autonomous motivation would be associated with higher participation in web-videoconferences (H1), and secondly, that higher levels of autonomous motivation would be associated with the use of richer communication tools when taking part in a web-videoconference (H2).

Regarding the relationship between the two technology related variables, based on the findings that successful experiences using ICT lead to a higher intention to continue the use of ICT (Roca & Gagné, 2008) it can be hypothesized that taking part in more web-videoconferences would be associated with the use of richer communication tools (H3).

Research on motivation has shown a strong relation between intrinsic motivation, enhanced learning, and performance (Benware and Deci, 1984, Deci and Ryan, 2000, Grolnick and Ryan, 1987), which has been confirmed in online settings (Guay et al., 2008, Keller and Suzuki, 2004). Thus, it can be hypothesized that higher levels of autonomous motivation would be associated with higher scores on the final exam (H4).

As mentioned above, synchronous communication with rich tools may offer a powerful way to provide autonomy support and structure and it may help to increase the sense of perceived autonomy, perceived competence, and perceived relatedness (e.g. when using text in a chat tool in combination with audio-visual information such as voice intonation and facial expression, information is transferred in a way that is more supportive for understanding compared to using chat only; Hrastinski et al., 2010). Therefore, it is hypothesized that the use of richer communication tools would be associated with higher scores on the final exam (H5), and that participation in more web-videoconferences would be associated with higher scores on the final exam (H6).

Section snippets

Participants and design

Participants were students in a facultative summer course in economics for prospective Bachelor students of an International Business degree programme at a Dutch business school, which was offered entirely online and aimed to bridge potential gaps in prior knowledge of economics. This summer course is part of a wider summer course program that has been offered since 2004 to over a thousand students and has been fully integrated in the admission and application processes of the respective

Results

We will first provide some relevant descriptive data before testing the hypotheses. Fig. 2 shows the amount of participation and use of communication tools during the four web-videoconferences.

From the total of 110 participants, 18 never attended a web-videoconference; 27 attended once; 27 attended twice; 16 attended three times and 22 students attended all four videoconferences. Because there is a limited amount of groups and because each group was relatively small, effects nearing

Discussion

This study explored the relationship between available tools used, student motivation, participation, and performance on a final exam in the context of a facultative summer course in economics. Our first hypotheses concerned the relationship between academic motivation and participation, and stated that higher levels of autonomous motivation are associated with more participation in web-videoconferences (H1) and with the use of richer communication tools when taking part in a

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank Prof. Dr. Tamara van Gog for her helpful comments on a previous draft of this paper.

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